Damp and mould within the home can produce allergens, irritants, mould spores and other toxins that are harmful to health.[footnote 3] Even if visible mould is not present, dampness alone can increase the risk of health problems. Excessive moisture can promote the growth of microorganisms such as mould and other fungi, certain species of house dust mites, bacteria or viruses.[footnote 4] The more serious the damp and mould problem and the longer it is left untreated, the worse the health impacts and risks are likely to be.
Most people come into contact with the substances produced by damp and mould by breathing them in. This means they predominantly affect the airways and lungs.[footnote 5] [footnote 6] [footnote 7] [footnote 8] [footnote 9] [footnote 10] [footnote 11] [footnote 12]
Damp and mould can cause disease and ill health in anyone, but people with underlying health conditions, weakened immune systems, and some other groups of people are at greater risk of ill-health from damp and mould (see ‘People at increased risk from damp and mould’).
During the inquest into the death of Awaab Ishak, the Coroner concluded that Awaab’s death was a result of a severe respiratory condition due to prolonged exposure to mould. Awaab’s death highlights just how crucial it is for landlords to understand the health risks of damp and mould and respond with urgency when cases are reported.
Landlords should advise any tenant who is concerned about the symptoms they are experiencing to consult a healthcare professional. Landlords should not delay action to await medical evidence or opinion – medical evidence is not a requirement for action, and damp and mould should always be addressed promptly to protect tenant health.
Respiratory effects
Damp and mould predominantly affect the airways and lungs. The respiratory effects of damp and mould can cause serious illness and, in the most severe cases, death. The respiratory effects include:
general symptoms such as cough, wheeze and shortness of breath [footnote 13]
increased risk of airway infections, including aspergillosis (an infection of the airways with the fungus Aspergillus) [footnote 8] [footnote 14]
development or worsening of allergic airway diseases such as rhinitis (a condition causing nasal congestion, runny nose, sneezing and itching), asthma and other conditions that involve inflammation of the airways (including bronchitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)) [footnote 14] [footnote 15]
In 2019, the presence of damp and/or mould in English residences was estimated to be associated with approximately 5,000 cases of asthma and approximately 8,500 lower respiratory infections among children and adults. In addition, damp and mould were estimated to contribute to 1 to 2% of new cases of allergic rhinitis in that year.[footnote 15] Alternative data sources, primarily from self-reporting [footnote 2] [footnote 16], suggest that the percentage of dwellings affected by damp and/or mould may be even higher than the estimates used for this study, in which case the total number of cases could be 3 to 8 times greater.
Other physical health effects
Some people who are exposed to damp and mould might experience adverse health outcomes that are not linked to their airways or lungs. These include:
irritation of the eye potentially leading to allergic conjunctivitis[footnote 14]
eczema, and other patches of itchy skin or skin rashes[footnote 14] [footnote 17]
other fungal infections (including, but not exclusively those of the skin), especially in people with weakened immune systems [footnote 14] [footnote 18]
Mental health effects
Some people who are exposed to damp and mould might experience poor mental health as a result of living in a home with damp and mould.[footnote 14] [footnote 19] [footnote 20] [footnote 21] This could be due to:
unpleasant living conditions
destruction of property and belongings
anxiety related to physical health impacts and/or looking after a relative suffering from damp and mould-related illnesses
frustration with poor advice and/or being blamed for damp and mould
social isolation as a result of not wanting visitors in the home
delays in response or repairs following reporting of damp and mould and/or poor quality of repairs
People at increased risk from damp and mould
Certain individuals may be at increased risk of the health impacts of damp and mould exposure. This could be due to health-related or age-related vulnerabilities, or because they are less able to report and act on guidance related to damp and mould, or simply because they are more likely to live in a home with damp and mould.
People most at risk of health issues from damp and mould
While damp and mould pose a risk to anyone’s health and should always be acted on quickly, it is particularly important that damp and mould is addressed with urgency for the groups below as they are more vulnerable to significant health impacts:
people with a pre-existing health condition (for example allergies, asthma, COPD, cystic fibrosis, other lung diseases and cardiovascular disease) who are at risk of their condition worsening and have a higher risk of developing fungal infections and/or additional allergies [footnote 6] [footnote 19] [footnote 14]
people of all ages who have a weakened immune system, such as people who have cancer or are undergoing chemotherapy, people who have had a transplant, or other people who are taking medications that suppress their immune system [footnote 22]
people living with a mental health condition [footnote 23] [footnote 24]
pregnant women, their unborn babies and women who have recently given birth, who may have weakened immune systems [footnote 6]
children and young people whose organs are still developing and are therefore more likely to suffer from physical conditions such as respiratory problems [footnote 6] [footnote 19] [footnote 25]
children and young people who are at risk of worsening mental health [footnote 19] [footnote 26] [footnote 27] [footnote 28]
older people [footnote 19] [footnote 29]
people who are bedbound, housebound or have mobility problems making it more difficult for them to get out of a home with damp and mould and into fresh air
People who fall into more than one of these categories are likely to be particularly vulnerable to the health impacts of damp and mould. Landlords should not delay action to await medical evidence or opinion – medical evidence is not a requirement for action.
Groups who are most likely to live in homes with damp and mould
Certain groups are more likely than others to live in homes with damp and mould. This includes:
people with a long-term illness [footnote 30]
people who struggle to heat their homes and/or are experiencing fuel poverty [footnote 2] [footnote 30] [footnote 31]
people on low incomes [footnote 19] [footnote 30] [footnote 32]
people with disabilities [footnote 30] [footnote 33] [footnote 34]
people from ethnic minority backgrounds [footnote 19] [footnote 34] [footnote 35]
people living in temporary accommodation [footnote 36] [footnote 37]
Housing conditions that increase tenants’ risk of living in a home with damp and mould
In England, housing stock varies significantly in age, design and building materials, each with different challenges in relation to damp and mould. There are a variety of housing conditions that put people at increased risk of exposure to damp and mould.[footnote 6] [footnote 19] [footnote 38] [footnote 39] They include:
homes where residents feel unable to open windows due to concerns about security, noise, or high outdoor air pollution
homes that are poorly or inadequately insulated
homes with inefficient or ineffective and expensive to run heating systems
homes that are poorly ventilated
homes without adequate damp proof courses
homes that are poorly maintained
homes that are overcrowded
Landlords should proactively investigate their housing stock for damp and mould issues, particularly when homes meet any of these criteria.
People who are most likely to face barriers to reporting damp and mould
Tenants may face barriers which may mean they struggle to report damp and mould to their landlord. This may be due to knowledge, language, literacy or communication barriers, personal circumstances, a lack of awareness of legal standards and housing rights in England, or fear of eviction or discrimination, among other things.[footnote 34] [footnote 40] [footnote 41] [footnote 42] [footnote 43] [footnote 44] [footnote 27]
Landlords should consider how they might best support these tenants, by building trust and working with other professionals who may be able to provide additional support (see below ‘Responding with urgency and sensitivity and taking tenants’ needs into consideration’ in the section ‘Identifying and addressing damp and mould in your property’ and ‘Building relationships with other professionals’ in ‘Reducing the risk of damp and mould developing’.
Types of tenants who might face barriers to reporting include:
people from ethnic minority backgrounds
people who have moved to the UK within the past 10 years, including people seeking refuge and foreign students
people moving in and out of homelessness and/or in insecure tenures
people with a learning disability and/or a neurodiverse condition such as autism
people living with a mental health condition
people who are dependent on alcohol and/or drugs
people in receipt of welfare benefits
people who live in houses in multiple occupation (HMO)
people living in the private rented sector who have a fear of eviction
people without a diagnosed mental health condition or registered disability but with either temporary or on-going support needs
Legal standards on damp and mould in rented homes
There are a number of legal standards that private and social landlords must adhere to. A lack of compliance puts tenants at risk and places the landlord at risk of prosecution.
Legal standards for housing providers
There are 5 main legal standards that relate to damp and mould in rented homes.
All homes must be free from hazards at the most dangerous ‘category 1’ level
The Housing Act 2004 states that properties must be free from hazards at the most dangerous ‘category 1’ level, as assessed using the Housing Health and Safety Rating System (HHSRS), a risk-based evaluation tool. This includes mould and all types of dampness. See below ‘Understanding damp and mould’.
Generally, a ‘category 1’ hazard means that an occupier of or visitor to the property may require some form of medical attention over the course of a year. Local councils also have a power to take action when they identify hazards at the ‘category 2’ level.
All homes must not contain conditions that are prejudicial to health
The Environmental Protection Act 1990 gives tenants and local councils powers to take legal action where homes contain a ‘statutory nuisance’, which includes where they are in such a state as to be prejudicial to health.
To be a statutory nuisance, the damp and mould must be harmful to the health of the tenant or a nuisance.
Homes must be fit to live in
New provisions in the Landlord and Tenant Act 1985 added by the Homes (Fitness for Human Habitation) Act 2018 require that properties are free of hazards, including damp and mould, which are so serious that the dwelling is not reasonably suitable for occupation in that condition. The current occupier may be taken into consideration when determining whether the property is suitable.
A home that is fit for human habitation is safe and healthy, which would mean free from damp and mould that could cause significant harm.
Tenants may wish to take action if their property is unfit for human habitation or the landlord has failed to keep it in repair, under defined circumstances, under Section 9A and Section 11 of the Landlord and Tenant Act 1985. While there is currently no legal requirement to undertake remedial work within a specific period of time, landlords should nonetheless respond to complaints about repairs promptly.
Social housing specifically must meet the Decent Homes Standard (DHS)
To meet the Decent Homes Standard, social housing must be free from dangerous ‘category 1’ hazards. But the DHS also states that social housing must be in a reasonable state of repair and provide a reasonable degree of thermal comfort. Either disrepair or inadequate thermal comfort, or both, may result in damp and mould. Where the Regulator of Social Housing (RSH) determines a provider has breached standards, it has a range of legal powers it can use, including enforcement powers.
We will legislate to introduce a Decent Homes Standard in the private rented sector at the earliest opportunity.
Privately rented homes must meet minimum energy efficiency standards
The Energy Efficiency (Private Rented Property) (England and Wales) Regulations 2015 require that privately rented homes must meet the Minimum Level of Energy Efficiency standard of Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) band E (unless exempt). The regulations do not make reference to damp and mould, but an energy efficient property is less likely to be affected by condensation, one cause of damp and mould, provided it is adequately ventilated.[footnote 2] [footnote 50] The government has committed to consult on the energy efficiency of social housing.
For a low-cost mould and damp report, click here.